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When is a contract frustrated? Learn the legal test, key cases, exam tips and the effects of frustration in English contract law.

Tinn v Hoffman [1873] 29 LT 271 is a leading contract law case on cross-offers. The court held that where two parties independently post identical offers and acceptances at the same time, neither communication can operate as an acceptance of the other because neither party had knowledge of the other's offer. The case highlights the importance of communication and mutual assent in contract formation.

What is a mode of acceptance in contract law? Can an offeror insist on a particular method of acceptance, and what happens if the offeree uses a different one? This article explains the rules governing the communication of acceptance, the distinction between mandatory and suggested methods, and the key case of Manchester Diocesan v CGI (1970).

When does acceptance take effect in contract law? In Entores v Miles Far East Corporation [1955], the Court of Appeal held that acceptance by an instantaneous communication, such as telex, is effective when it is received, not when it is sent. The case established the receipt rule, distinguished the postal rule, and laid the foundation for modern contract formation by email and other electronic communications.

Stevenson v McLean (1880) 5 QBD 346 case summary and analysis.

What is promissory estoppel, and when can it stop someone enforcing their contractual rights? In this Contract Law Questions article, we explain the doctrine of promissory estoppel, its key requirements, and the leading cases every law student needs to know. Learn why High Trees transformed contract law, what "shield not sword" means, and how promissory estoppel can provide an important exception to the rules of consideration.

Can a contract be formed before an acceptance letter is received? The postal rule says yes. In this first edition of Contract Law Questions, we explain one of the most famous exceptions to the normal rules of acceptance. Learn when the postal rule applies, why Adams v Lindsell is still important today, and how to spot postal rule issues in problem questions, exams, and the SQE1. A must-know topic for every contract law student.

The Complete Guide to SQE1 Revision provides a practical roadmap to passing one of the most challenging legal exams in England and Wales. From creating an effective revision timetable and mastering SBA questions to choosing the best resources and avoiding common mistakes, this guide explains how to revise efficiently, apply legal knowledge with confidence, and maximise your chances of passing SQE1 on your first attempt.

A breaches and remedies revision sheet and key cases table for no-nonsense revision.

A guide to mastering study techniques for the SQE 1 and how to revise smarter, not harder.

A guide to writing effective conclusions in your essays and how to use IRAC to finish strong.

Find out what the SQE 1 is and how it is assessed.